About Confucius (approximately 551- 479 BC)

A Concise History of China
J.A.G. Roberts, Harvard University Press
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Kong Fuzi, Master Kong, known in the West as Confucius, a latinized form of his name, lived approximately 551-479 BC. He was born in the small north-eastern state of Lu. His parents probably belonged to the minor aristocracy and his search for an official position was perhaps typical of shi or gentlemen of his day. He became an expert on ceremony, genealogy and ancient lore and was appointed to a junior post in his own state until he was forced to go into exile. He visited a number of states and held office in Wei before returning to Lu for his last years. He acquired a number of followers, who recorded his sayings in a compilation made long after his death, known as the Lunyu or Analects.

Confucius’s teachings were influenced by his perception that he lived in troubled times, and by his belief that in the early Zhou period China had experienced a golden age. He frequently cited the actions of Kings Wen and Wu, and those of the Duke of Zhou, as examples of appropriate behaviour. He believed that they had followed the dao or Way, which in this context meant ‘Way of running the state so that good order and harmony can prevail among men’. His concern for the promotion of good government led him to seek a position as minister to a king who would heed his advice and practise ethical government. In order to achieve this the ruler should select good officials, set a moral example and treat his people with benevolence.

A number of other themes were prominent in Confucius’s teaching. He made frequent reference to standards of conduct and to the ideal of the junzi or princely man, a term often translated as ‘gentleman’. Two quotations from the Analects illustrate this concept. In the first, Zi Lu, one of Confucius’s disciples, asked about the gentleman. Confucius replied:

‘He cultivates himself and thereby achieves reverence.'
‘Is that all?’
‘He cultivates himself and thereby brings peace and security to his fellow men.’
‘Is that all?’
‘He cultivates himself and thereby brings peace and security to the people.’

In another passage Confucius distinguished between the gentleman, who is superior not because of breeding but because of superior moral accomplishments, and the small man. ‘The gentleman,’ he said, ‘understands what is moral. The small man understands what is profitable.’ Confucius constantly emphasized the importance of education and of self-cultivation, and thus established a respect for book-learning which was to last throughout the imperial period. Self-cultivation was not only a matter of scholarship, it was also a commitment to learning how to behave. The essential quality was jen, a term often translated as benevolence, but which also connoted dealing with other human beings as a man ideally should. One aspect of jen was reciprocity: ‘Do not impose on others what you yourself don not desire.’

Confucius believed strongly in the importance of ritual and ceremony and in the value of politeness and good manners. The correct performance of ritual was an essential part of the government of a state. Within the family it was important to observe the niceties of behaviour to others and to apply restraint with regard to eating, drinking and dress. Confucius placed particular stress on the importance of filial piety, which implied obedience to one’s parents during their lifetime and care for them as they grew old. After their death it was essential to provide them with a proper funeral and to observe mourning over a period of three years. There was also an obligation to make the correct sacrifices to the dead, in particular to male ancestors. Though referred to as ‘ancestor worship’, these ceremonies did not imply the deification of forebears. Confucius had little to say about religion, but he did define wisdom as keeping one’s distance from gods and spirits while showing them reverence. In all his teaching Confucius was not announcing a new doctrine but expounding what he believed to be the principles which had been observed by rulers and families in the past.